MARGARINES, BUTTERS AND COOKING OILS

MYTHS AND FACTS
All ABOUT MARGARINES, BUTTERS AND COOKING OILS
(olive oils, coconut oil, peanut oil, palm oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, canola oil, corn oil)

FATS SCARE: IT IS A MATTER OF CHEMISTRY

Fats are essential compounds for our body because are vital as energy sourse, energy store as also for cell membranes and brain development. They are also structural components of some of the most important substances in the body, including prostaglandins, and regulate the production of sex hormones. In addition vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble vitamins, meaning that the fat in foods helps the intestines absorb these vitamins into the body.

About 95% of our body fat is in the form of triglycerides which are classified as simple fats (fatty acids). Triglycerides come in two forms:

SATURATED fatty acids, which are solid at room temperature and come from animal sources including meat, egg yolks, dairy products, and fish. They are also found in tropical oils, especially coconut and palm oil.

UNSATURATED fatty acids, which are liquid at room temperature and come primarily from plant and seed sources including safflower, sunflower, pumpkin, sesame, and flax. Unsaturated fats come in 3 varieties; super-unsaturated, poly-unsaturated or mono-unsaturated.

Superunsaturated Omega 3 essential fatty acids: they are easily broken down in body and then used in numerous, vital health building processes. This is one of the two Essential fatty acids, so called because humans cannot manufacture it and must get it from food. Most modern Western diets are severely deficient in it. Omega-3 fatty acids are mostly obtained from oily fish caught in high-latitude waters. They are comparatively uncommon in vegetable sources, including margarine. However, one type of Omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-lineloic acid (ALA) can be found in some vegetable oils. Flax oil contains 30-50% of ALA, and is becoming a popular dietary supplement to rival fish oils; both are often added to premium margarines. (Simopoulos 2008, Exp. Biol. Med. 2008;233:674-688).
Pollyunsaturated Omega 6 essential fatty acids: they too are easily broken down and used throughout body. They include the essential fatty acid linoleic acid (LA), which is abundant in vegetable oils grown in temperate climates. Some, such sunflower (50%), have large amounts, but most temperate oil seeds have over 10% LA. Margarine is very high in omega-6 fatty acids. Although during Paleolithic period when human’s genetic profile was established, there was a balance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids nowadays in modern Western diets are frequently quite high in Omega-6 but very deficient in Omega-3. This is due mainly to wide use of rich in omega-6 cooking oil in many consuming products (ice cream, biscuits, cakes, candies etc). The omega-6 to omega-3 ratio is increased from 10:1 to 30:1. Large amounts of omega-6 decreases the effect of omega-3. The research is inconclusive about how much omega-6 someone should eat compared to the amount of omega-3. Many researchers suggest consuming one to four times more omega-6's than omega-3's. (Simopoulos 2008, Exp. Biol. Med. 2008;233:674-688)
Monounsaturated fats, the Omega 9, are found in olive, almond, avocado, peanut, pecan, cashew, filbert, and macadamia oils, and to some extent in butter and meat, and are also easily broken down.

Another form of fat, is the result of simple fats combining with other chemicals and the most well-known compound fat is the lipoprotein, which comes in several different densities as the famous being LDL and HDL.
1) Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) transports cholesterol and nutrients from your liver through the blood system and into your cells for use.
2) High density lipoproteins transport cholesterol away from your tissues and back to your liver where it is recycled or eliminated.

For over 50 years it has been recognized that the amount and type of fatty acids in the diet have a major impact on plasma cholesterol concentrations and associated risk of developing atherosclerotic vascular disease (Salter A.M., White D.A.. Nutr. Res. Rev. 1996;9:241–257). Epidemiological observations, such as the 7 countries study, clearly showed that populations with high dietary intakes of saturated fatty acids had higher plasma cholesterol levels and an increased incidence of cardiovascular disease.

BUTTER
Butter is essentially the fat of the milk. Butter is produced by churning cream until the fats separate from the liquid (buttermilk) and the butter is in a semi-solid state. Butter contain tha fat soluble vitamin A which is needed for the health of the thyroid and adrenal glands, both of which play a role in maintaining the proper functioning of the heart and cardiovascular system. Abnormalities of the heart and larger blood vessels occur in babies born to vitamin A deficient mothers. Butter contains lecithin, a substance that assists in the proper assimilation and metabolism of cholesterol and other fat constituents. Butter also contains a number of anti-oxidants that protect against the kind of free radical damage that weakens the arteries. Vitamin A and vitamin E found in butter both play a strong anti-oxidant role. Butter is a very rich source of selenium, a vital anti-oxidant--containing more per gram than herring or wheat germ. Vitamin D is needed for the absorption of calcium and the regulation of calcium levels in the blood. The absence of vitamin D in the food of young animals leads to the development of rickets unless the animal is exposed to sunlight or u.v. irradiation.; they are essential for the normal development of teeth, and are used for treating osteomalacia and dental caries. Sunlight activates the metabolism of vitamin D in the body.

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
2,999 kJ (717 kcal)
Carbohydrates
0 g
Fat
81 g
saturated
51 g
monounsaturated
21 g
polyunsaturated
3 g
Protein
1 g
Vitamin A equiv.
684 μg (76%)
Vitamin D
60 IU (15%)
Vitamin E
2.32 mg (15%)
Cholesterol
215 mg

Fat percentage can vary.Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database

Useful notes:
*Keeping butter tightly wrapped delays rancidity, which is hastened by exposure to light or air, and also helps prevent it from picking up other odors. Wrapped butter has a shelf life of several months at refrigerator temperatures.
*Butter can form a useful role in dieting by providing satiety. A small amount added to low fat foods such as vegetables may stave off feelings of hunger.
*Butter consists mostly of saturated fat and is a significant source of dietary cholesterol.
*Butter naturally contains some trans fat, but it's a good kind of trans fat eg the naturally occurring trans-fatty acids rumenic acid and trans-vaccenic acid (trans-vaccenic acid is used by the human body to make rumenic acid show anticarcinogenic properties.

MARGARINES VS BUTTER

Butter is an animal fat, contains both saturated fats and cholesterol – the two dietary ingredients that increase blood cholesterol (LDL cholesterol or "bad" cholesterol). Cholesterol in foods, on the other hand, has little effect on blood cholesterol in most people.(Anon et al, Lancet 318, 1981, Vallim et al Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2010 ). Margarine is made from vegetable oils, so it contains no cholesterol. Margarine is also higher in "good" fats — polyunsaturated and monounsaturated — than butter is. These types of fat help reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad," cholesterol.
In the past margarines were processed using a method called hydrogenation, which results in unhealthy trans fats in order to solidify liquid vegetable oil into a spread. Just like saturated fats, trans fats increase LDL cholesterol ("bad" cholesterol) and lower HDL cholesterol ("good" cholesterol). Trans fat also substitute fatty acids chains creating leaks in the cell membrane. (Kelly et al., Am Fam Physician. 2010). Hydrogenation is the process of combining hydrogen gas at high pressure and temperature with the oil, in the presence of a metal catalyst such as nickel, platinum, or copper, in order to make the liquid oil into a solid. It destroys the essential fatty acids and replaces them with trans fatty acids that the body is not equipped to deal with, and leaves behind traces of metal. They compete with essential fatty acids for absorption in the body and create imbalances and deficiencies. Hydrogenation creates unpredictable new molecules, whose effects are unknown, which profoundly alters the properties of the oil. Several large studies have indicated a link between consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases (Bauer et al., Pediatr Nurs. 2009 ). Plant sterol esters or plant stanol esters have been added to some margarines and spreads because of their cholesterol lowering effect. Plant sterols are plant equivalents of cholesterol and have a very similar molecular structure. (Jong et al Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007 ), (Remig et al J Am Diet Assoc. 2010)

Useful note:
*When are you going to select a margarine, choose one with the lowest trans fat content possible and less than 2 grams total of saturated plus trans fats per tbsp. Check the Nutrition Facts label and choose one with zero trans fat.
The American Heart Association recommends the use of margarine as a substitute for butter. You can use butter because of its benefits (vitamins, energy, membrane composition etc) as also for its flavour and taste but always consume butter products in small amounts (Ellis et al., Can J Diet Pract Res. 2010)

OILS AND FATS

A lower prevalence of cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancers have been demonstrated in countries residing in the Mediterranean region in comparison to other parts of the world . This lowered incidence has been partially attributed to the regular intake of virgin olive oil as part of a traditional Mediterranean diet ( Singh et al., Lancet. 2002, Stark et al. Nutr. Rev. 2002, De Lorgeril et al., Circulation. 1999;99:779–785, Trichopoulou et al.,N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, Visioli et al.,. Nutr. Metab. Cardio. Dis. 1995).
Historically, the beneficial health effects of virgin olive oil intake were attributed to the glycerol fraction with its high concentration of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) (particularly oleic acid) ( Tripoli E, Nutr. Res. Rev. 2005). .However, several seed oils (including sunflower, soybean, and rapeseed) containing high quantities of MUFAs are ineffective in beneficially altering chronic disease risk factors (Harper CR,. J. Nutr. 2006, Aguilera et al., Clin. Nutr. 2004).

When fats/oils are heated to high temperatures the cis fatty acids are converted to TRANS fatty acids. This simply pertains to how the molecule is turned but the consequence is that unsaturated fats begin to behave like saturated fats with respect to their effects in raising instead of lowering serum cholesterol levels (about 50% of the cholesterol increasing effect of saturated fat) and can raise LDL cholesterol by nearly as much as the saturated fat (Mensink & katan, N Engl J Med. 1990). Burning produces charring products that are carcinogenic. Even if one does not burn the oil or fat, overcooking (esp. when one reuses oils) breaks down the polyunsaturated molecule and free radicals can form. These are fragments that have combined with any available oxygen to produce toxic peroxides. They are toxic because that act as strong oxidizing agents that damage and destroy cells.
Useful notes
*Most oils from nuts are considered fairly healthy, but one should be careful using oil derived especially from peanuts or walnuts as these are most frequently indicated in severe nut allergies. If one plans to use peanut oil on a dish served to guests, be sure to verify that no guest has a peanut allergy. A peanut allergy can quickly turn the healthiest oil into deadly oil.
Monounsaturated fat content (proximal).

Type of fat	Mono-Saturated (%)	Poly-Saturated (%)	Saturated (%)	Vitamin E (gr)
Olive oil	74	8	14	5.10
Canola oil	59	30	7	22.21
Peanut oil	46	32	17	(?)
Corn oil	24	59	13	17.24
Soybean oil	23	58	14	16.29
Sunflower oil	20	65	10	49.00
Safflower oil	14	75	6	40.68
Walnut oil	23	63	9	(?)
Palm kernel oil	11	2	81	(?)
Palm oil	37	9	50	33.10
Coconut oil	6	2	86	0.66
Butter	30	4	62	2.00
Lard	43	9.6	40	0.00
Shortening	30	37	29	(?)
Tallow (rendered fat of cattle or sheep)	42	4	50	(?)

Sources:
1) U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2005. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 18. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl
2)McCance & Widdownson's THE COMPOSITION OF FOODS,
5th ed., 1991)



SMOKE POINT OF COOKING OILS

The smoke point generally refers to the temperature at which a cooking fat or oil begins to break down to glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol is then further broken down to acrolein which is a component of the bluish smoke. The substance smokes or burns, and gives food an unpleasant taste. The important thing about cooking with any oil (olive or otherwise) is not to heat the oil over its smoke point (also referred to as smoking point). The smoke point of oil varies with its quality. High quality extra virgin olive oils (with low free fatty acids) have a high smoke point. They are an excellent choice, but an expensive one.

Smoking Points of oils and fats (temperatures are approximate).
Name /Smoking Point*
Butter, whole /300°F/150°C
Butter, clarified /300°F/150°C
Canola oil /464°F /240°C
Coconut oil /350°F/175°C
Corn oil /450°F/230°C
Cottonseed oil/ 420°F/215°C
Flax seed oil /225°F 107°C
Frying fat /465°F/240°C
Lard /375°F/190°C
Olive oil (Extra Virgin) /375°F/190°C
Palm oil /455°F /235°C
Peanut oil /440°F/225°C
Safflower oil (refined)/ 510°F/265°C
Shortening, emulsified vegetable /325°F/165°C
Soybean oil (refined) /450°F /232°C

Sunflower oil (refined)/ 450°F 232°C


1) The New Professional Chef, 6th edition 1996,
by The Culinary Institute of America, published by John Wiley & Sons.
2) Smoke point for more cooking oils in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_point
2) IOOC http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/oliveWorld/aceite3.html

Useful notes
* For deep frying foods seems that the best oils are those with a high smoke point such as canola oil, corn oil, safflower oil)
* Oil which has oxidized because of exposure to air, heat and light will have a lower smoke point. Using oil repeatedly will also make it smoke sooner.
* The more polunsaturated acids in the oil, the less suitable it is for cooking.
* The smoke point of any oil will be reduced after it is used for cooking and it is varies according to the growing conditions and the way of its production .

* When heated, olive oil is the most stable fat, which means it stands up well to high frying temperatures. Its high smoke point (410ºF or 210ºC) is well above the ideal temperature for frying food (356ºF or 180ºC). The digestibility of olive oil is not affected when it is heated, even when it is re-used several times for frying (Cuesta C., Rev Esp Fisiol. 1987).
* Baking, is even more preferable to frying since here the commonly used temperature is 350 degrees F.

WILL HEATING CONVERT UNSATURATED OILS TO SATURATED OR TRANS-FATTY?
As far as making a saturated fat all oils will oxidize and hydrogenate to a tiny degree if repeatedly heated to very high temperatures such as is done in commercial frying operations. Canola oil and virgin olive oils are both highly monounsaturated oils and therefore resistant to oxidation and hydrogenation. Studies have shown oxidation and hydrogenation occurs to a lesser degree in olive oil than in other oils. In addition Results in animals fed fried olive oil, their takes place an adaptation in the mechanisms related to the prevention of a rising of plasmatic cholesterol levels. (A. Kiritsakis, Olive Oil from the Tree to the Table -Second edition 1998, Cuesta C., Rev Esp Fisiol. 1987).

WHY ACRYLAMIDE IS CONNECTED WITH FRIED FOODS ?

Acrylamide is a vinyl monomer that improves the aqueous solubility, adhesion and cross-linking of polymers. Scientists have known for years that acrylamide is capable of causing nerve damage in humans, including muscle weakness and impaired muscle coordination, particularly from industrial exposure to large levels of the chemical.. A considerable public concern about cancer risk from acrylamide in foods followed an announcement by the Swedish National Food Administration that high concentrations of acrylamide are found in fried potatoes and potato chips and, more generally, in starch-containing foods cooked at high temperatures for a long period. Frying and roasting potatoes at high temperatures result in an appetizing crust, but at the same time acrylamide can form. The analyses confirmed that acrylamide is absent from the raw or boiled foods but present at significant levels in fried, grilled, baked and toasted foods. Studies have shown that carbohydrates and amino acids, particularly the non-essential amino acid asparagine, are the main chemicals in food that are responsible for acrylamide formation. Now, a new study by researchers in Spain indicates for the first time that dietary fats make a significant contribution to the formation of acrylamide (Ehling et al., Adv Exp Med Biol. 2005)

Useful notes
*Acrylamide levels in French fries can be reduced by half if the final stage of the frying process employs a lower oil temperature. Therefore, the method appears to be an effective way of controlling the acrylamide level in the final product(Palazoglou Gökmen . J Agric Food Chem. 2008)
*Washing raw French fries, soaking them for 30 minutes and soaking them for 2 hours reduced the formation of acrylamide by up to 23%, 38% and 48% respectively but only if they were fried to a lighter colour. The jury is still out on chips that are fried to a deep, dark brown.
* Because of phenol compounds virgin olive oil can be proposed as a reliable mitigation strategy to reduce acrylamide formation in domestic deep-frying (Napolitano et al. J Agric Food Chem, 2008)

OILS AND WEIGHT LOSS
All oils, including olive oil, are 100% fat and contain 9 calories per gram (120 calories/tbsp) which means they should be used sparingly. All vegetable oils contain 100% fat.

HOW TO STORE OILS

Air, heat, and light will cause olive oil to turn rancid (rancid is the flavor which is imparted in an oil after it has undergone the process of oxidation. Since prolonged contact with oxygen is the rot cause of oxidation, rancidity is a common defect, so it should be stored in a cool place in an airtight container). If your oil has a buttery taste, then it's probably rancid.
The ideal temperature for storing olive oil is 57°F or 14 degrees C, although a normal room temperature of 70ºF works very well if the olive oil is stored in a dark area where the temperature remains fairly constant. Refrigeration will extend the life of olive oil without harming the oil. Doing so will cause it to congeal and turn cloudy, but should not affect flavor. If refrigerated, olive oil will return to its original, liquid state when warmed to room temperature again.
Oil should never be stored in plastic or in reactive metals. Stay away from plastic containers as the oil can absorb PVCs.

PALM OIL

Palm oil and palm kernel oil are edible plant oils derived from the oil palm Elaeis guineensis. Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the fruit, while palm kernel oil is derived from the kernel (seed) of the oil palm. Palm oil is naturally reddish because it contains a high amount of beta-carotene (though boiling palm oil destroys the beta-carotene, rendering the oil colourless.
Today palm oil it is consumed worldwide as a cooking oil, margarine and shortening. Palm oil is used in everything from biscuits to cosmetics and fuel. It is also used as an ingredient in fat blends and a vast array of food products. In the United States, palm oil's principal edible use is as an ingredient in prepared foods (primarily baked goods). Food manufacturers choose palm oil because it has a distinct quality, requires little or no hydrogenation, and prolongs the shelf life of products. Palm oil is packed with more antioxidants than olive oil. Besides beta-carotene, palm oil also contains pro-Vitamin A carotenoids and a form of Vitamin E. The major disadvantage of using palm oil is that contains a great proportion of omega 6 polyunasaturated fats increasing tha ratio of omega6/omega 9 fats creating health problems as compete with benefits of omega 3 fats (Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2008). The U.S. Dietary Reference Intakes for essential fatty acids recommends the consumption of omega-6 and omega-3 fats in a ratio of 10-to-1. This means consuming ten times more omega-6's than omega-3's.

OlLIVE OIL AND ITS GRADES

Olive oil is considered by some to be the healthiest oil because
1) it provides a mix of monounsaturated fats and its antioxidant compounds.
2) It can also be obtained in very pure form, which most health experts recommend and when looking for the healthiest oil, one should look for oils that are minimally processed
The International Olive Oil Council (IOOC) is an intergovernmental organization based in Madrid, Spain, with 23 member that tries to bring together olive oil and table olive producing and consuming stakeholders. The United States is not a member of the IOOC, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture does not legally recognize its classifications (such as extra-virgin olive oil). In countries that adhere to the standards of the IOOC the labels in stores show an oil's grade.

• Extra-virgin olive oil comes from virgin oil production only, contains no more than 0.8% acidity. Virgin olive oil comes from virgin oil production only, has an acidity less than 2%, and is judged to have a good taste.
• Pure olive oil. Oils labeled as Pure olive oil or Olive oil are usually a blend of refined and virgin production oil.
• Olive oil is a blend of virgin and refined production oil, of no more than 1.5% acidity. It commonly lacks a strong flavor.
• Refined olive oil is the olive oil obtained from virgin olive oils with high acidity by refining methods that do not lead to alterations in the initial glyceridic structure.

Green olive
Green olive oil is usually the oil produced by the first pressing of the olives. It would be extra-virgin olive oil that says on the label it is from the first pressing.

"Pomace" Oil
Don't be deceived by the lower price and think this is a good alternative. It is my personal opinion that olive pomace oil should not be used for cooking. It's made from a combination of olive residue oil and virgin olive oil, and the quality is poor.

Useful note:
*Olive oil is very stable in frying and cooking temperature, and is also a great flavor additive to savory dishes. It may not be equally favored in sweeter baked goods because its flavor is relatively strong. Do not fry with olive in tempratures above 1900C

CANOLA OIL

Canola isn’t an natural plant but an engineered one developed in Canada Canadian Oil, Low Acid." "). The oil is derived from the rapeseed plant. Canola oil is low in saturated fat, is high in monounsaturated fat, and has a beneficial omega-3 fatty acid profile as also a higj smoke point useful for frying. (Dupont J Am Coll Nutr. 1989). The food oil industry is promoting Canola oil as an equally healthy twin to olive oil.. However, on the other hand, there are some studies from experiments in rats that have found Canola oil to have certain adverse health effects such as causing hyperlipidemic (high levels of lipid in the blood) conditions in the test rats. In a rat study where the rats were either given a canola oil or soybean oil, it was found that the canola oil induces a hyperlipidemic condition. (Ohara N et al., Food Chem Toxicol. 2008 , Naito et al., Y Toxicology. 2003). In addition to the genetic modification, the process of making Canola oil is not simple. The procedure involves a combination of high-temperature mechanical pressing and solvent extract, usually using hexane. This process can alter the omega-3 content in the oil.

PEANUT (ARACHIS OIL) OR “GROUNDNUT OIL"

Peanut oil (arachis oil) derived from peanuts legumes and it is mainly used in chinese, S Asian, Southeast cuisine. An interesting fact about Peanut oil is that it was firstly used as a source of fuel for the diesel engine. The major producers/exporters of peanuts are the United States,Argentina, Sudan, Senegal, and Brazil and in Southern Turkey. The peanut, grown primarily for human consumption, has several uses as whole seeds or is processed to make peanut butter, oil, and other products mainly because it is largely unsaturated, (do not raise blood cholesterol levels)(Özcan Mehmet Musa1, Journal of Oleo Scienc, 2010). Furthermore, a diet high in oleic acid, which can be easily achieved through consumption of peanuts and olive oil, can have a beneficial effect in type II diabetes and ultimately reverse the negative effects of inflammatory cytokines observed in obesity and non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (Vassiliou et al., Lipids in Health and Disease 2009). On the other hand experiments in animals (rabbits) showed that peanut oil is unexpectedly atherogenic for rats, rabbits, and primates. The lesions it produces are more fibrous than fatty maybe (Kritchevsky Lipids. 1998)(Saso et al., J Vet Med Sci. 1994). (Rai S, Int J Exp Pathol. 2009 ).
Useful note:
*As with whole peanuts, peanut oil is a dangerous substance to persons with a peanut allergy.
*Peanut oil massage is extremely beneficial for people suffering from Arthritis.

FLAX SEED OIL

Flaxseed oil comes from the seeds of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum, L.). Flaxseed was cultivated in Babylon as early as 3000 BC and in ancient Egypt. By the 8th century, King Charlemagne believed so strongly in the health benefits of flaxseed that he passed laws requiring his subjects to consume it.
Flaxseed oil contains both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids . Flax seeds contain also high levels of dietary fiber including lignans, an abundance of micronutrients Flaxseeds are rich in alpha linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fat that is a precursor to the form of omega-3 found in fish oils called eicosapentaenoic acid or EPA. ( Zheng , et al. J Food Eng 2005) Flaxseed lignan, presents 100 times more of this compound than any other food. The lignans are thought to exert protective effects by interfering with endogenous sex hormone metabolism. ( Velentzis, et al.. Eur J Cancer 2008). Evidence to date suggests that the dietary fibre and (or) lignan content of flaxseed provides the hypocholesterolemic action. (Prasad K. et al., . J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 2009, Riediger et al., . Eur J Nutr 2008, Touillaud et al., J Natl Cancer Inst 2007, Demark-Wahnefried et al., Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008)
The omega-3 ALA found in the flaxseed oil fraction also contributes to the antiatherogenic effects of flaxseed via anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative mechanisms. Dietary flaxseed may also protect against ischemic heart disease by improving vascular relaxation responses and by inhibiting the incidence of ventricular fibrillation. (Bassett et al., Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2009)
Some reports link ALA to decreased risk of prostate cancer or find no association with while others suggest increased risk, though such findings come largely from observational studies where food sources of ALA were predominantly meat, dairy products, and salad dressings (not flaxseed) It has been suggested that the metabolism of ALA may vary depending upon the concurrent intake of ω6FAs, i.e., that biochemical conversion of ALA to longer chained ω3FAs, eicosapentanoic (EPA) and docosahexanoic acids (DHA) is enhanced if ALA is consumed simultaneously with a reduced intake of ω6FAs, as in low-fat diets .. However, low-fat diets have independently been associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer (Wendy Demark-Wahnefried,Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009).

Useful notes:
*Flaxseed oil is available in liquid and softgel capsule forms. Like any oil, flaxseed oil may turn rancid if it is not refrigerated. Flaxseed oil requires special packaging because it is easily destroyed by heat, light, and oxygen. The highest quality flaxseed products are made using fresh pressed seeds, bottled in dark containers, and processed at low temperatures in the absence of light, extreme heat, or oxygen.

* Bake ground flaxseed into cookies, muffins, breads and other baked goods.

* Consuming large amounts of flax seed may impair the effectiveness of certain oral medications, due to its fiber content, and may have adverse effect due to its content of neurotoxic cyanogen glycosides and immuno-suppressive cyclic nonapeptides.